Poultry Meal

In contrast, poultry meal contains only skin, bone, and trimmings and excludes feathers, heads, feet, and entrails.

From: Protein Byproducts , 2016

BY-PRODUCTS | Inedible

H.W. Ockerman , L. Basu , in Encyclopedia of Meat Sciences (Second Edition), 2014

Poultry Meal

Poultry meal consists of the milled, rendered, and cleaned parts of the carcasses of slaughtered poultry. Inedible tissues comprising the raw materials include the heads, necks, feet, undeveloped eggs, intestines, and skeletal frames from which muscles have been removed. The completeness of muscle removal for boneless chicken meat varies somewhat. Similarly, several of the tissues listed above also have edible markets. Poultry meal is to be exclusive of feathers, with the exception of such amounts as might occur unavoidably with the use of good processing practices. A considerably higher quantity of inedible tissue from poultry processing is acquired from each carcass as trends advance for further processing and more table-ready foods.

Poultry meal is an excellent source of protein. It is a product used extensively in companion animal diets. Processing improvements have resulted in better poultry meal, as with most by-product ingredients. Improvements in digestibility have enhanced its usage in other animal species, such as in aquaculture and starting pig diets. Specifications vary slightly depending on source. Broiler chickens, laying hens, and turkeys comprise the major sources of poultry raw materials. However, they all yield similar final rendered products. Ducks and other less dominant avian species may show some variations.

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Nutrition and feeding of swine

Hayford Manu , Samuel K. Baidoo , in Animal Agriculture, 2020

Protein sources

Fish meal, poultry meal, dairy proteins, meat meal, and blood products such as spray dried plasma are good sources of protein for nursery pigs. 60 Blood plasma protein improves growth performance because of its high content of immunoglobulins. Egg-derived immunoglobulins are also available to prevent possible transmission of Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) and other diseases. Plant proteins are soybean meal, soybean protein (in early diets), wheat gluten, potato protein, peas, lupines, sunflower meal, faba beans, and lentils. Soybeans and most other plant protein sources require heat treatment, dehulling, enzymatic hydrolysis, gamma irradiation, and breeding techniques (Biotechnology) to make them suitable for young pigs because they are rich in anti-nutritional factors such as phytic acid, condensed tannins, lectins, protease, and α-amylase inhibitors. 60 However, besides soybean meal, other legumes contain lower level of sulfur amino acids and tryptophan and require addition of crystalline amino acids to the diets for growing pigs or mix with cereals improves the protein value. 61 Generally, unrefined plant proteins are fed after two weeks post-weaning to avoid inflammatory reactions to antigenic proteins.

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Management Strategies for Organic Vegetable Fertility

Gerald E. Brust , in Safety and Practice for Organic Food, 2019

9.1 Phosphorus and Potassium

Most (~   80%) of the phosphorus and potassium in manure or compost will be available to the crop in the first year of application, but poor storage of the manure or compost will lead to losses of potassium through leaching (Gaskell et al., 2006 ). Phosphorus sources other than manure for organic production include bone meal, fish and poultry meal, and rock phosphate. Potassium sources other than manure for organic production include alfalfa meal, kelp meal, greensand (or glauconite, which is a clay-type mineral with a potassium content of 7%), wood ash, langbeinite (listed by OMRI as allowable in certified organic production if it is used in the raw form without any alteration), and potassium sulfate. Growers should be aware that there are two forms of potassium sulfate available: one comes from the reaction of sulfuric acid with potassium chloride, and it not allowed in certified organic vegetable production. The other is developed from natural sources, and it is allowed in organic crop production. Because phosphorus and potassium are relatively immobile in the soil, they should be incorporated to a depth of 6–10  in. before planting (Drinkwater and Snapp, 2007).

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Chromium, Iodine, and Phosphorus

Larry J. Thompson , in Veterinary Toxicology (Third Edition), 2018

Phosphorus

Most phosphorus in nature exists in combination with oxygen in the form of phosphates, primarily in igneous and sedimentary rocks. Inorganic phosphates are commonly used as chemical fertilizers and food and feed supplements, and have many industrial uses. Phosphorus is abundant in the animal body, primarily as a structural component of crystalline hydroxyapatite in bone and teeth, but also as required components of phospholipids, nucleic acids, nucleotides, and enzyme cofactors. Phosphate ions also function in acid–base balance and other essential body functions. Phosphorus is an essential macroelement in nutrition, and is an important consideration in the formulation of animal diets. The largest dietary source of phosphate will be in the form of inorganic phosphate supplements, and other dietary sources may include plant-origin feeds, as well as bone, meat, poultry, and fish meals. Normal phosphorus nutrition and metabolism requires adequate calcium in the diet with an appropriate calcium-to-phosphorus ratio (Ca:P). While adverse effects of excess phosphorus are rare, they can occur with either excess dietary phosphates or deficient dietary calcium. If the Ca:P ratio is balanced, usually no wider than 2:1, animals can tolerate a wide range of dietary phosphorus levels (NRC, 2005c).

Excess phosphorus in the diet of ruminants, especially sheep, can result in the formation of urinary calculi in the kidney or bladder. This formation of stones can obstruct or completely block urine flow, especially in males, resulting in the bladder filling with urine and eventually rupturing into the abdominal cavity, causing death. The problem can be prevented by correctly balancing calcium and phosphorus in the diet. Excess phosphorus in the diet of horses has resulted in nutritional secondary hyperparathyroidism, a condition usually associated with a high grain diet without appropriate calcium supplementation. The high dietary phosphate will depress the intestinal absorption of calcium, with a decrease in plasma calcium and an increase in plasma phosphate levels. Low plasma calcium will stimulate the secretion of parathyroid hormone, which will increase bone mineral resorption activity. The skeletal bones will lose calcium, and the demineralized bone will be replaced by fibrous connective tissue, with the facial bones often becoming enlarged (Joyce et al., 1971), leading to the common term of big head disease in horses. It is also known as bran disease, since feeding high dietary levels of bran, which is high in phosphate and low in calcium, has historically been a cause of the disease. In all animals, optimum animal performance will be closely associated with optimum dietary calcium and phosphorus balance.

Phosphorus, white or yellow, has historically been used as a rodenticide, which is uncommon today. Initial clinical signs following ingestion would include gastroenteritis with vomiting and diarrhea. If the animal survived several days, it would often develop a secondary phase of severe liver damage, with renal insult also occurring.

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Slum Livestock Agriculture

M.T. Correa , D. Grace , in Encyclopedia of Agriculture and Food Systems, 2014

Smaller species: Chickens and rabbits

Chickens are animals most commonly raised in slums. One or two hens and one rooster roaming free with a few chicks is a common sight. It is not uncommon to find medium (10–30 chickens) to larger layer flocks (up to 100 chickens) in confined spaces. Chickens are the most versatile of poultry, given the value added of egg production and the worth of the animal, live or processed. In slums with limited electricity or where the cold chain is not available, chickens and eggs are a quick and easy source of protein and income generation. Chickens have an additional value because they are used in religious ceremonies and offerings (Alves et al., 2009 ). The breeds of chickens vary from region to region and some commercial breeds are seen in slums. Scavenging chickens are fed in the morning with leftover food and possibly with added corn or poultry meal. During the day, chickens eat insects, garbage, and organic matter found in empty lots or by the side of the road. Housing is rudimentary and may consist of hay or rice husks arranged in cardboard or wooden boxes and placed off the ground for protection from dogs and predators mostly during the night. Raising chickens is considered an easy activity requiring minimal labor and is usually performed by women and children ( Food and Agriculture Organization, 2001).

Backyard flocks requiring additional attention compete for space with humans and other animals and are more labor-intensive requiring feeding, watering, and pen cleaning. Noise levels and manure disposal become a problem with larger flocks and are a deterrent for keeping them in small and crowded spaces. Larger flocks are more common in peri-urban areas than slums, but broiler chickens keepers may have more than 100 birds, as in the case in the Mombasa slum in Bangladesh where a bird keeper is reported to have between 125 and 250 birds (Sabuni, 2010). Live chickens are transported in cages or burlap bags to nearby food markets. These markets are located at walking distance from the dwelling where the animals are raised, although sometimes birds are transported in cages on top of buses or trucks to other urban markets. Chickens are sold live or slaughtered on site at the buyer´s request. Eggs have a longer shelf life (lasting 3–4 weeks without refrigeration depending on environmental conditions) than poultry meat. Eggs are wrapped in newspaper and kept in the shade to prolong their shelf life. They may be sold to neighbors in small numbers, as needed, for income generation or in larger numbers at markets. Other poultry kept in slums include turkeys, geese, doves, pigeons, quail, and guinea fowl.

Rabbits are gaining popularity in slums in Africa. They can be kept in small spaces in crates, either individually or in small groups. Rabbit crates are easy to build and can be kept stacked up against each other or leaned against a wall to occupy less space. These animals require more attention than scavenging or backyard flocks of chickens for feeding, watering, and cage cleaning. However, it is a profitable and uncomplicated business as evidenced by the number of rabbits a person can keep. One resident in the Kahawa Soweto slum in Nairobi has more than 400 rabbits in a shed (Kelto, 2013). Rabbits are fed greens collected locally and supplemented with vegetable leftover from markets or pelleted food. This is a small species that can reach to 4   kg of weight and can easily be processed locally as chickens for sale or family consumption. In a space of 30×40   feet, slum residents can raise more than 500 rabbits of different breeds. More unusual animals are also kept: a survey in Nigeria reported snails, grass cutters, and antelope among a total of 14 species kept.

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Periparturient and Neonatal Diseases

Judith A. Bell DVM, MSc, PhD , in Ferrets, Rabbits, and Rodents (Second Edition), 2004

GENERAL PRINCIPLES

Nutrition of Breeding Ferrets

The most important single factor in keeping any ferret healthy is nutrition. Feed male and female kits intended for breeding the highest-quality diet available at weaning and throughout their entire productive lives. Select a ration that contains 35% to 40% protein and 18% to 20% fat, with meat listed as the first ingredient. 2 Jills come in heat for the first time at 4 months of age if they are exposed to light for longer than 12 hours per day. If bred at this age, they must have an excellent diet that enables them to sustain both growth and pregnancy.

Feeding an inadequate diet to breeding ferrets leads to several serious sequelae. Multiparous jills fed poor-quality cat foods have small litters, and primiparous jills consuming such diets are susceptible to pregnancy toxemia. Failure to conceive or, more commonly, small litter size may be the result of several factors, including poor nutrition. Primiparous jills should have at least eight kits; smaller litters result from use of a hob of low fertility, breeding at the wrong time or only once during estrus, breeding of a jill and hob of an unusual color phase that carry lethal recessive genes, or feeding an inadequate diet. If the diet does not contain at least 35% protein and 15% fat, with most of the protein from meat products, suggest that the owner use a higher plane of nutrition for both the jill and hob as the first step in improving reproduction.

The first ingredient listed on the label of a diet suitable for ferrets should be meat or poultry meal. Food products vary in quality and may contain a high proportion of bone and undigestible tissue. The price of the food is a good indicator of its protein quality. Some older ferrets resist dietary changes; offer them a smorgasbord of premium cat and ferret foods so that they can make their own selections. 2 Some foods labeled as ferret diets were developed from commercial mink rations and contain poorly processed fish that is unpalatable to ferrets unaccustomed to the flavor of fish. Although fish is a natural diet for mink, it is not for ferrets. Ferrets prefer chicken or other meats, which are the usual ingredients in premium cat foods and diets formulated specifically for ferrets. Mink rations, premium cat foods, and high-quality ferret diets all can provide more than adequate nutrition for breeding ferrets; however, if a jill refuses to eat the diet, it obviously has no nutritional value for her.

Even if provided with a concentrated, meat-based diet, lactating jills become thin if they nurse litters of more than 10 kits. Jills bred on every estrous cycle must be fed very high-calorie diets between litters; the fat that they gain is not sufficient to cause obesity-related reproductive problems.

Management of Breeding Ferrets

Place a pregnant jill's cage in a quiet area well before parturition. This is particularly important for primiparous jills, which are more likely to settle down and care for their kits if they are not disturbed or distracted. A plastic dishpan with rolled edges makes a good nesting box. Place the dishpan in a corner of the cage and anchor it firmly or, ideally, drop it through an opening in the cage bottom so that the rolled edge of the pan is level with the cage floor. The jill must be able to easily enter and exit the nesting box without risking trauma to the mammary glands. The kits should not be able to climb out of the nesting box until they are close to weaning age. Shredded aspen or corn husks make good bedding for whelping nests. In small breeding operations, small terry cloth towels are a practical alternative for bedding material; do not use large towels, because kits can get lost in them. Discard old towels that begin to unravel to prevent kits' becoming entangled in loose threads. Avoid use of coarse wood shavings or shredded newspaper (which clumps in a solid mass when wet).

For the jill's comfort, the room temperature should not exceed 21.1°C (70°F). Place a heat lamp over part of the nesting box so that the jill and kits can select warmth as necessary. Be sure that food and water are readily accessible to the jill so that she can eat and drink without leaving the kits. Place a clip-on food dish and a water bottle near the edge of the nesting box so that the jill can eat and drink even while lying down.

Breeding Pet Ferrets

Discourage owners of single pet ferrets from trying to raise a litter unless they are prepared to devote most of their time for several weeks to observing and caring for the periparturient jill. Breeding ferrets and raising kits successfully requires constant supervision during gestation, parturition, and lactation; if not prevented or treated promptly, unattended problems can lead to death of the jill, kits, or both.

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Spectroscopic Technique: Fourier Transform (FT) Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (NIR) and Microscopy (NIRM)

Juan Antonio Fernández Pierna , ... Vincent Baeten , in Modern Techniques for Food Authentication (Second Edition), 2018

5 Authentication by FT-NIRM

The first study proposing the use of FT-NIRM) for authentication purpose was the one published by Piraux and Dardenne (1999) for feed authentication. They have proposed the use of a new method, based on NIR microscopy, for the detection and quantification of MBM in compound feed in order to follow the ban created after the BSE crisis. Samples were measured using an AutoImage Microscope connected to a Perkin-Elmer FT-NIR and analyzed using ANNs. With this NIRM instrument, the infrared beam is focused on each particle of a sample using a microscope in order to collect the NIR spectrum (1100–2500   nm). A collection of several hundred spectra is made which represents the molecular NIR signature of a particle from an ingredient in the compound feed. A predictive DA was applied to classify particles into either meat particles or particles of a different nature, that is, not meat. An ANN (multilayer perceptron network with back propagation based on the PLS scores) was used to discriminate between the respective groups. Their results showed an overall error rate lower than 0.65% giving an indication of the potential of this technique for the detection of MBM. Additionally, Baeten et al. (2001a, b) used a NIR microscope for the detection and quantification of ingredients of animal origin in feeding stuffs. Satisfactory results were obtained for the detection and identification of meat meal, MBM, bone meals, blood meal, fish meal (muscle chair, bone fish, and scale), feather meal, poultry meal, milk powder, and egg meal. Moreover, their study has proved that 0.5% MBM in a compound feeding stuff can be detected by NIR microscopy. Gizzi et al. (2003) published an overview of the different tests for the detection of animal tissues in feed including PCR, immunoassay, microscopy, and NIR microscopy. In their paper, they have shown the main characteristics of NIRM as well as the weaknesses of the method. The main advantages of NIRM are (i) that it is directly based on NIR information, (ii) it can be confirmed by another method (e.g., PCR) that can be used as legal evidence in case of fraud; (iii) NIRM does not require expertise; (iv) it is a nondestructive method; and (v) a single analysis could enable a wide range of feed ingredients to be detected. The weaknesses involve the need to develop sample databases, the limit of detection (LOD) and the cost of the equipment. Therefore, these authors concluded that NIRM is the most suitable method for large screening applications in terms of sample output and automation and that this method is able to achieve LOD as low as 0.1%. A few years later, Baeten et al. (2005a, b, c) have decreased this LOD by detecting the presence of MBM at concentrations as low as 0.05% mass fraction by the use of the NIR microscopy applied to the sediment fraction of the feed. More recently, De la Haba et al. (2007) have proposed a method based on NIRM to check the presence of ruminant tissue in fish meal or in compound feeds containing fish meal in order to allow only fish meal to be used in ruminant feed. The use of pure fish material in the animal production chain poses no risk and it is accepted that fish does not carry Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathy (TSE). Thus, they have worked on methods permitting the detection and identification, at species level, of animal by-products included in compound feed. NIRM spectra allowed the construction of discrimination equations using SVMs as a chemometric tool. As a result, clear discrimination between fish meal and meal of other animal species is possible with a high average success rate of 95%. In contrast to optical microscopy, NIRM offers one clear advantage: it is not dependent on the subjectivity of the analyst because particles are identified from their NIR spectral fingerprint and not by visual inspection.

NIRM has also been applied for authentication in different areas. Wilson and Moffat (2004) used a Perkin-Elmer FT-NIR IdentiCheck spectrophotometer coupled with a microscope for the authentication of Viagra tablets. A single spectrum for each tablet was taken and some chemometric procedures such as PCA or PLS were used to identify the active ingredient by comparing it to the real pure compound. This study is important in the fight against counterfeit pharmaceuticals using the spatial distribution of the active compounds. Another area of application of NIRM is in forensic laboratories to determine, among others, the type of explosive used in terrorist attacks or to detect the presence of illegal drugs.

An alternative to NIRM is the use of a more recent technology called NIR imaging. This technology is a powerful approach to remote sensing in precision agriculture and mineralogy among others. The success of NIR imaging can be considered as a combination of different factors: high-performance and uncooled NIR sensitive focal plane array detectors, digitally tunable infrared optical filters, the drastic increase in computer speed, and the capacity of laboratory computing platforms. The integration of these elements has already shown promising results in the determination of quality parameters for complex matrices, such as pharmaceutical blends, detection of apple surface defects and contaminations (Baeten et al., 2007) or the detection of animal compounds in feeding stuff (Fernandez et al. 2004). NIR imaging allows the contemporaneous collection of spatial and spectral (and therefore chemical) information characterizing samples under test.

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Volume 2

Nupur Nagavekar , ... Rekha S. Singhal , in Innovative Food Processing Technologies, 2021

2.41.3.1 Supercritical Fluid Extraction of Fat Components From Animal Parts

Traditional solvent extraction techniques such as Soxhlet and accelerated solvent extraction are commonly used for fat extraction and determination. The growing awareness on environmental sustainability has propelled the use of SCFE as an ideal non-polar solvent for extraction of fat from various animal matrices. Animal slaughter houses generate approximately 50% of animal wastages that can be used for protein and fat extraction by SCFE. Commercially important fats are produced from land animals like poultry, pork, horse, beef and lamb as well as from marine fishes.

2.41.3.1.1 Extraction of Fat Components From Terrestrial Animals Using SCFE

Lipids such as oils, fats, phospholipids and steroids play essential roles in energy storage, insulation, cell-cell communication and cell membrane structure. Traditionally, fats and proteins are extracted from animal tissues by the rendering process. These lipids are generally more economical than fish and plant oils and have wide use in animal feeds or industrial applications. Feed grade animal fat is derived from by-products of many species such as poultry fat from by-products generated from the poultry industry, white grease/lard from the rendering of pork tissue, and tallow obtained from rendered beef tissue (Bureau and Meeker, 2010).

Simple lipids, complex lipids (acylglycerols, phosphoglycerides, sphingolipids and waxes), terpenes, pigments, steroids and their alcohols (sterols), prostaglandins among many others can be efficiently extracted using SCFE. Fractionation of milk fat yields fractions with short and medium-chain fatty acids enriched in cholesterol and fractions with medium and long-chain fatty acids low in cholesterol (Hierro and Santa-María, 1992).

Phospholipids have hydrophilic as well as hydrophobic ends and is a constituent of cell membranes where it forms a beneficial barricade around cells. Cholesterol is the most abundant steroid in meat. Healthier meat and meat products with less fat are gaining popularity to prevent cardiovascular and other chronic diseases. Rahman et al. (Rahman et al., 2018) reported the defattening of bovine heart using SCFE at 400   bar/30   °C to give significantly higher proteins (82.07 and 82.67   g/100   g), amino acids (80.39 and 79.05   g/100   g), and minerals (2910 and 2901 mg/100   g). SCFE extracted lipids had significantly higher unsaturated fatty acids (53.09   g) in comparison with the control (45.62   g) and hexane-extracted lipid (44.65   g) per 100   g fatty acids. Orellana et al. (Orellana et al., 2013) studied the effect of pressure (69–345   bar), temperature (25   °C, 40   °C and 50 °C), flow rate, and mass of carbon dioxide for fat extraction from poultry meal using semi-batch extraction unit and reported maximum extraction yields of 87%–97% at 25  °C and 345   bar. Table 3 reviews some of the studies on extraction of animal fat using SCFE.

Table 3. Supercritical extraction of lipids and intermediates from terrestrial animals/animal parts.

Biomass Bioactive compound/Purpose Conditions References
Cattle brain Pharmaceuticals such as vitamin D3 and cosmetic preparations SCFE at 250   bar/60   °C with SCCO2 flow rate of 3   kgh−1, particle size of 6.45   ×   10−4  m and co-solvents acetone, isopropyl alcohol and ethanol Vedaraman et al. (2004)
Cow brain Pharmaceuticals such as vitamin D3 and cosmetic preparations SCFE at 230   bar/70   °C with SCCO2 flow rate of 2–4 kgh-1 Vedaraman et al. (2005)
Freeze-dried goat placenta Residual placenta material can be easily accepted for pharmaceutical and functional products SCFE at 346   bar/35.3   °C, SCCO2 flow rate of 18.2 Lh-1, and extraction time of 29.1   min Hou et al. (2010)
Sheep skin Degreasing of the skin SCFE at 133   bar/45   °C with SCCO2 density flow rate of 2 mLmin-1 and 10   min of extraction time Marsal et al. (2000)
Raw and cooked Meat (beef, pork, etc.) Estimation of fat in the sample SCFE at 620.5   bar/95–105   °C, SCCO2 flow rate of 1.3 Lmin-1 and extraction time of 45   min Chandrasekar et al. (2001)
Ground beef Estimation of fat in the sample SCFE at 620.5   bar/100   °C, SCCO2 flow rate of 2 Lmin-1 for 25   min with an initial 5   min of static hold. Effects of ethanol as co-solvent and sample drying were also studied to prevent co-extraction of water Eller and King (2001)
Ground beef Estimation of fat content by SCF is safe, and would require reduced extraction times as compared to traditional techniques SCFE at 379.2   bar/80   °C with SCCO2 flow rate of 4 mLmin-1 for 35   min King et al. (1996)
Holotrichia diomphalia larvae Extracts with anti-fungal activity against Pyricularia oryzae fungus SCFE at 300   bar/50   °C, SCCO2 flow rate of 30 lh-1, time 0.5   h gave extracts rich in pentadecylic acid, (z)-11-Hexadecnoic acid Hexadecanoic acid, 9-Octadecenoic acid Ethyl oleate 9-Octadecenoic acid (z)-, 2-hydroxy-1- (hydroxymethyl) ethyl ester Dong et al. (2008)
Oak silkworm (Antheraea pernyi) Pupal oil SCFE at 280.3   bar/35.31   °C, SCCO2 flow rate of 20.26 Lh-1, time 1.83   h gave extracts rich in unsaturated fatty acids (77.29% of total oil) and α-linolenic acid (ALA) (34.27% of total oil) Pan et al. (2012)
Desilked silkworm pupae Pupal oil SCFE at 324.5   bar/39.6   °C, SCCO2 flow rate of 19.3 Lh-1 and 131.2   min gave 29.73% oil yield with high unsaturated oil (68% of total oil) and ALA content (27.99% of total oil) Wei et al. (2009)
Dehydrated beef powders and chunks Cholesterol and lipid extraction for lipid reduction in foods SCFE at 0.9   g/cm3/55   °C, SCCO2 flow rate of 30–45gg-1 sample, reduced the content of cholesterol and fat from dehydrated beef products without significantly changing the flavor Froning et al. (1992)

2.41.3.1.2 Extraction of Fat Components From Aquatic Animals Using SCFE

In fatty fish, lipid content varies from species to species and the time of their capture around the year. Fats are localized under the skin, around the intestines, or in the white muscle. Fatty fish like salmon, mackerel, herring, lake trout, sardines and albacore tuna are high in ω-3 fatty acids with the lipid content of around 18%–21%. Phospholipids, cholesterol, and triglycerides are the main fats found in marine crustaceans such as crabs and lobsters (Chapelle, 1977). The lipids extracted from different tissues of marine animals such as crabs, lobsters, herring, salmon and sardine contain relatively large amounts of long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (principally 20:5 and 22:6), mainly incorporated into phospholipids, especially with phosphatidylethanolamine. SCFE is a promising process for the extraction and fractionation of heat labile polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) as it is operated under mild conditions. SCFE is being used in the fish oil extraction at industrial scale for the past few decades with advantages of improved extraction yield, better product quality, and higher content of ω-3 fatty acids such as eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and DHA.

Bucio et al. (Bucio et al., 2016) reported better fish oil quality (with lower total oxidation values) due to simultaneous extraction of pigments such as astaxanthin along with oil using SCFE than the oil extracted by solvent extraction. Oil extraction from fish or aquatic animals requires pre-treatment for moisture reduction below 20%. The preferred method is freeze drying. In this case, particle size does not make a discernible difference in the oil extraction yield (Rubio-Rodríguez et al., 2008). Table 4 shows reports on extraction of fat components from aquatic animals using SCFE.

Table 4. Supercritical extraction of lipids and intermediates from aquatic animals/animal parts.

Biomass Bioactive compound/Purpose Condition Reference
Rendered fish meal Extraction of astaxanthin along with the fish oil. Better quality of oil than that extracted by solvent extraction, with lower total oxidation values along with protein concentration in the meat SCFE at 395   bar/40   °C with SCCO2 flow rate of 9.5   ±   0.5 gmin-1 decreased the fat content from 7.2% to 0.7% Bucio et al. (2016)
Trout (heads, spines and viscera) High ω-3 fatty acid content in lipids SCFE at 500   bar/60   °C, SCCO2 flow rate of 10   ±   1 gmin-1 with 8.7% EPA and 7.3% DHA of total fatty acids in oil from spine Fiori et al. (2017)
Fish waste Fish oil with low levels of toxic elements and high doses of ω-3 PUFAs SCFE at 610   bar/39.8   °C, SCCO2 flow rate of 3.7 mlmin-1 and extraction time of 4   h Hajeb et al. (2014)
Fish waste High quality fish oil with ω-3 PUFAs SCFE at 350   bar/60   °C with SCCO2 flow rate of 2 mlmin-1 for 6   h Hajeb et al. (2015)
Fish and its by products Fish oil with ω-3 PUFAs SCFE at 250   bar/39.85   °C Rubio-Rodríguez et al. (2012)
Indian mackerel (Rastrelliger kanagurta) Fish oil with ω-3 PUFAs SCFE at 350   bar/60   °C, SCCO2 flow rate of 2 mlmin-1 with SCCO2 soaking for 10   h and pressure swinging for 180 - 150   min Sahena et al. (2010)
Skin of Indian mackerel (Rastrelliger kanagurta) Fish oil with ω-3 PUFAs SCFE at 350   bar/75   °C, SCCO2 flow rate of 2 mlmin-1 with SCCO2 soaking for 10   h followed by 5   h extraction and pressure swinging for 180   min Sahena et al. (2010)
Raw caviar from fish (Cyprinidae Carassius) Fish oil with ω-3 PUFAs and MUFAs SCFE at 200–350   bar/35–55   °C, SCCO2 flow rate of 15   kgh−1 for 3   h of extraction Lisichkov et al. (2009)
Viscera of African Catfish (Clarias gariepinus) Fish oil with ω-3 PUFAs SCFE at 400   bar/57.5   °C, SCCO2 flow rate of 2.0 mlmin-1 and soaking time 2.5   h have highest oil yield of 67.0% Sarker et al. (2012)
Stugeron skin High quality fish oil with ω-3 PUFAs SCFE at 316   bar/39.8   °C, SCCO2 flow rate of 3.5 Lmin-1, extraction time of 10   min gave extraction rate of 97.25% Hao et al. (2015)
Fish caviar, viscera and fille from water carp (Cyprinus carpio L.) Mono- and polyunsaturated fatty acids SCFE at 400   bar/60   °C with SCCO2 flow rate of 0.194   kgh−1 for 180   min Kuvendziev et al. (2018)
Hake (Merluccius capensis–Merluccius paradoxus) by-products ω-3 PUFAs with high EPA and DHA content SCFE at 250   bar/40   °C, SCCO2 flow rate of 10   kgh−1 and extraction time of 3   h gave 96% extraction of oil Rubio-Rodríguez et al. (2008)
Shrimp (Pandalus borealis Kreyer) waste utilization (head, shell and tail) Oil with ω-3 PUFAs with high EPA and DHA content SCFE at 350   bar/40   °C with SCCO2 flow rate of 3–5 Lmin-1 for 90   min extracted deep red oil rich in ω-3 PUFAs with 7.8% EPA and 8% DHA Treyvaud Amiguet et al. (2012)
Tuna by-products Fish oil rich in ω-3 PUFAs SCFE at pressures   ≥   250   bar, T   ≥   40   °C, SCCO2 flow rate of ≥ 10   kg CO2 h−1 and 3   h for extraction time gave a yield of around 2–6% Taati et al. (2017)
Oyster Oyster fat with MUFA and PUFAs SCFE at 370   bar/50   °C with SCCO2 flow rate of 2 mlmin-1, extraction time of 40   min, with 8% (v/v) ethanol as co-solvent gave 99% recovery of fat Lao et al. (2000)
Oyster (Crassostrea gigas) muscle ω-3 PUFAs concentrate SCFE at 300   bar/50   °C with SCCO2 flow rate of 27 gmin-1, extraction time of 2   h gave a yield of 5.96% Lee et al. (2017)
Australian rock lobster (Jasus edwardsii) liver High PUFAs dominated by DHA and EPA SCFE at 350   bar/50   °C with SCCO2 flow rate of 0.434   kgh−1 and extraction time of 4   h gave 94% extraction of lipids enriched with 31% PUFAs Nguyen et al. (2015)
Freeze dried antarctic krill and krill meal Oils composed solely of nonpolar lipids, largely triglycerides, without phospholipids and rich in astaxanthin SCFE at 250   bar/60   °C with SCCO2 flow rate of 0.6   kgh−1 gave recovery of 99% from freeze dried krill and 80% from krill meal Yamaguchi et al. (1986)
Fish cannery waste (Sardine head and tail) Fractionation of fatty acid methyl esters from sardine oil giving extract rich in EPA and DHA SCFE at 300   bar/60   °C, SCCO2 flow rate of 1 mlmin-1 and extraction time of 45   min gave purity of 28% EPA and 59% DHA Létisse and Comeau (2008)
Fish oil (rich in EPA and DHA) Encapsulation of low viscosity fish oil by SCFE emulsion technology in food, pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries Encapsulation of low viscosity ω-3 rich fish oil in polycaprolactone by SCFE emulsion technology at 80   bar/39.85   °C with an encapsulation efficiency of 50% with size smaller than 100   nm Prieto and Calvo (2017)
Scallop waste Phospholipid as emulsifier and suitable agent for dispersion, emulsification, stabilization and wetting SCFE at 250   bar/27   °C with SCCO2 flow rate of 1gmin-1 for 130   min, using 30% ethanol as co-solvent gave highest yield while using 50% iso-propanol gave highest purity of phospholipids Cansell et al. (2014)

Extraction of waste of hake (Merluccius Merluccius − Merluccius paradoxus) provided around 10   g of oil/100   g of dry raw materials, while the fatty fish species, e.g., Salmo Salar and Hoplostethus atlanticus off provided increased quantities of 40   g and 50   g of oil, respectively, from 100   g of dry raw material (Rubio-Rodríguez et al., 2012). Investigators around the world have reported on the yield of oil from different fish varieties using SCFE. These include 67   g from African Catfish (Clarias gariepinus) (Sarker et al., 2012), 36.2   g from tuna (Thunnus tonggol) (Ferdosh et al., 2015), 52.3   g from Indian mackerel (Sahena et al., 2010), 35.6   g from Long tail Tuna (T. tonggol) head (Ferdosh et al., 2013, 2016), and about 10   g from different parts of sardine (Gedi et al., 2015; Letisse et al., 2006) (all on dry weight basis per 100   g). Pretreatments such as soaking prior to extraction has been reported to enhance the oil yield the viscera of African Catfish (Zaidul et al., 2012). Hajeb et al. (Hajeb et al., 2014) isolated fish oil from fish waste at 350   bar/60   °C, and later on the improved quality of extracted fish oil (in terms of ω-3 PUFAs with low levels of toxic elements) at 610   bar/39.8   °C (Hajeb et al., 2015).

Other lipid components like phospholipids from aquatic sources have also been extracted using SCFE. The conventional sources of phospholipids are soyabean and egg yolk. However, newer technologies and raw materials as additional sources of phospholipids are now been explored. Conventional extraction of phospholipids from soyabean involves degumming, deoiling with acetone and solvent fractionation (Van Nieuwenhuyzen and Tomas, 2008). Cansell et al. (Cansell et al., 2014) carried out SCFE of phospholipids in two steps from scallop waste with a view to valorize it. The first step comprised deoiling at 300   bar/45   °C at a SCCO2 flow rate of 20   gmin−1 for 180   min. The residue was then subjected to SCFE at 250   bar/27   °C for 130   min with SCCO2 flow rate of 1   gmin−1 using 30% ethanol as co-solvent to obtain phospholipids with 50% purity. The purity could be further improved to 90% by replacing 30% ethanol by 50% iso-propanol. However, this step compromised with the recovery due to lower solubility of phospholipids in iso-propanol than ethanol.

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Alternative dietary protein sources for farmed tilapia, Oreochromis spp.

Abdel-Fattah M El-Sayed , in Aquaculture, 1999

The terrestrial animal by-products (poultry by-product meal PBM, blood meal BM, hydrolyzed feather meal HFM and meat and bone meal MBM) have high protein contents and good EAA profiles (Tacon, 1993). However, they may be deficient in one or more of the EAA. The most limiting EAA in these by-products are lysine (Lys; PBM, HFM), isoleucine (Ile; BM) and methionine (Met; MBM, BM, HFM) (NRC, 1983; Tacon and Jackson, 1985). If the proper ratio between these by-products is maintained in the diet, the EAA imbalances can be overcome and the quality of such a diet is likely to improve (Davies et al., 1989).

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Carob as a carbon source for fermentation technology

Ercan Yatmaz , Irfan Turhan , in Biocatalysis and Agricultural Biotechnology, 2018

3.4 Ethanol production

A gradual reduction in conventional fuel resources and increasing environmental pollution have forced many countries to investigate new and more renewable substrates to meet the energy demands of the world. In this approach, microorganisms are used to produce ethanol from different substrates by Zymomonas mobilis, Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Pichia stipitis (Brethauer and Wyman, 2010). The potential carbon sources for bio-ethanol production were summarized in Fig. 4.

Fig. 4

Fig. 4. Potential carbon sources for ethanol production (Smith, 2004).

Roukas (1993) reported that the external addition of nutrients to the carob extract did not affect the ethanol production and the maximum concentration (75 g ethanol/L) was achieved at 0.3% inoculum rate, pH 4.5, 30 °C and 200 g/L initial sugar concentration. When the solid-state fermentation was performed by Roukas (1994a), the maximum productivity value (6.7 g/kg per hour) was obtained at 3% inoculum rate, 0.5 mm carob particle size, 70% moisture level, pH 4.5 and 30 °C. The research about the usage of carob pods as a feedstock for bioethanol production in Mediterranean areas was carried out that the carob pod hydrolysates were suitable for ethanol fermentation at 30ºC, 125 rpm and 200 g/L initial sugar and 95 g/L of ethanol was produced after 24 h (Sánchez et al., 2010). The other research with Saccharomyces cerevisiae was designed to carry out optimum pH, nitrogen source and inoculum size for ethanol production from carob pod extract (Turhan et al., 2010b ). First of all, they optimized the carob pod extraction method and highest sugar content (115.3 g/L) was obtained at 80 °C, 2 h in 1:4 dilution rate (fruit: water ratio) by response surface analysis. Then one factor at a time method was used to determine the best fermentation conditions. Controlled pH at 5.5 gave a higher ethanol concentration (42.6 g/L) and production rates (3.37 g/L/h) than uncontrolled pH. Three inoculum sizes (1%, 3%, and 5%) were attempted and the highest results were obtained when the inoculum size was 3%. They also used different nitrogen sources (poultry meal, hull, and fines mix, feather meal and meat and bone meal) instead of yeast and the maximum production rate and final ethanol concentration were 3.48 g/L/h and 44.51%. The highest ethanol concentration and production rate were 42.90 g/L and 3.70 g/L/h respectively by using the yeast extract as a nitrogen source in a carob pod extract ( Turhan et al., 2010b). For fed-batch fermentation, addition of fresh carob extract increased the final ethanol concentration (130 g/L). Invertase activity and Saccharomyces cerevisiae tolerance to ethanol could be the main factors to be controlled in carob fermentation (Lima-Costa et al., 2012).

Ethanol production by immobilized Saccharomyces cerevisiae cells was studied by different researchers. The first one was carried out the kinetics of production and the maximum ethanol concentration (65 g/L) was determined under 200 g/L initial sugar concentration (Roukas, 1994b). The two reactor system for continuous ethanol production by immobilized Saccharomyces cerevisiae cells was carried out that the average ethanol productivity, ethanol yield (% of theoretical yield), and sugar consumption were 10.7 g/L/h, 71.5%, and 48% respectively when the constant dilution rate of 0.3 h−1 for 60 days (Roukas, 1996). Comparing the free and immobilized Saccharomyces cerevisiae cells using fed-batch culture was investigated and the maximum ethanol concentration (62 g/L) was determined from both free and immobilized cells at 300 g/L initial sugar concentration and 167 ml/h feeding (Roukas, 2004). But immobilized cells produced a higher ethanol compared with the free cells in repeated fed-batch culture (Roukas, 2004).

The other research about immobilized Saccharomyces cerevisiae was about to effect of Ca-alginate concentration (2%, 2.5%, and 3%), agitation (100, 150, and 200 rpm), yeast cells entrapped in immobilized beads (1%, 3%, and 5%) and pH (5, 5.5, and 6) (Yatmaz et al., 2013). Box-Behnken response surface statistical method was used to optimize the four fermentation parameters. 27 runs were done duplicated and results were evaluated by Minitab and the optimum conditions were determined to be 2% Ca-alginate concentration, 150 rpm agitation rate, 5% yeast cells entrapped in beads and pH 5.5. Ethanol concentration, ethanol yield, production rate and sugar utilization rate were respectively 40.10 g/L, 46.32%, 3.19 g/L/h and 90.66%; and the fermentation finished in 24 h. They also showed that the immobilized cells gave higher final ethanol concentration and production rates than free cells and the immobilized cells could be used for five times (recycle) to produce ethanol carefully (Yatmaz et al., 2013). For repeated-batch fermentation with biofilm reactor, S. cerevisiae was used with carob extract with different plastic composite supports (PCS) (5% soybean flour–5% yeast extract: SH-SF-YE-S; 5% soybean flour–5% yeast extract–5% bovine albumin: SH-SF-YE-BA-S; 10% soybean flour: SH-SF-S; 5% soybean flour–5% yeast extract–5% red blood cells: SH-SF-YE-RBC-S) to produce ethanol (Germec et al., 2015). First off all they performed test tube repeated batch to determine the best biofilm material for bioreactor experiments and the PCS of SH-SF-YE-BA-S was chosen to be the best material because the highest product yield value (46.69%) was achieved with this material. Then different fermentation parameters (initial sugar concentration: 4, 7, and 10ºBx; pH: 5.0, 5.5, and 6.0; agitation: 100, 150, and 200 rpm) for bioreactor were optimized by response surface methodology and the best conditions were determined to be 7.71ºBx, pH 5.18, and 120 rpm with 24.51 g/L ethanol production and 48.59% product yield. And they also carried out that the non-enrichment of carob pod extract could be used for ethanol production by biofilm bioreactor with a 35.41% ethanol production yield (Germec et al., 2015).

Saccharomyces cerevisiae was the main microorganism used for ethanol production from carob pod extract, but some researches were also performed with Zymomonas mobilis to produce ethanol. The first one was about to optimize the ethanol production by response surface methodology. The results was carried out that the maximum ethanol production for Zymomonas mobilis in carob pod extract was 0.34 g ethanol/g initial sugar when the parameters were 30 °C, initial pH 5.2, 80 rpm, 5.78 g/50 ml initial sugar, 0.43 g peptone/50 ml, 0.43 g yeast extract/50 ml respectively (Vaheed et al., 2011). Solid-state fermentation was performed to carry out to ethanol production by Zymomonas mobilis and the maximum of 30 g ethanol/ g initial sugar was achieved at 31 °C with initial moisture level of 80% (w/w), carob particle size of 1 mm, peptone concentration of 0.7% (w/w), initial cell concentration of 6.74 × 108 cells/g carob and incubation time of 43 h (Mazaheri et al., 2012). The other research with Zymomonas mobilis in a 0.5 L glass packed bed solid state fermenter incubated in a mixture of carob pods and wheat bran as filler to produce ethanol (Mazaheri et al., 2014). The optimum operation conditions were 28 °C, 1 mm carob particle size, 0.1 L/min intermittent aeration for 15 min for each hour for the second 15 h of the fermentation and 60.9 g ethanol/kg dry mixture produced carefully (Mazaheri et al., 2014).

Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Kluyveromyces lactis co-culture fermentation process to produce ethanol from carob sugars extracted with cheese whey (Rodrigues et al., 2016). Inoculated co-culture together in the fermentation medium was resulted with the inhibition of Kluyveromyces lactis totally because of low aeration and died after 3 days. If the high aeration was used, lactose fermentation had been started after Saccharomyces cerevisiae reached stationary phase. So medium had been diluted and inoculated Kluyveromyces lactis first (with 0.13 vvm) to overcome the osmolarity and oxygen problems. Kluyveromyces lactis was consumed all of the lactose after 48 h, and then Saccharomyces cerevisiae inoculated and ethanol fermentation started in a fed-batch regime. As a result, ethanol was produced at 80 g/L with a conversion factor of 0.4 g ethanol/g sugar by consuming all of the sugars (Rodrigues et al., 2016).

After all of this experiments, carob pod extract was shown that it was a good alternative source for bioethanol production. In a hypothetical plant, the total capital investment for a base case facility with a capacity to conversion 68,000 t/year carob pod was 39.61 million euros with a minimum production cost of 0.51 euro/L and the internal rate of return of 7% (Sánchez-Segado et al., 2012).

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